104-100

Gaius Marius serves as Consul. Wars against Teutones in Gaul. Victories of Aquae Sextiae 102; Vercellae, 101. Legislation of Saturninus; rioting in Rome. Marius restores order, 100.

102?-100

Caesar born in Rome on July 13 to Gaius Caesar and Aurelia.

91

Tribunate of Drusus, whose plans to satisfy the Italian allies fails; Drusus assassinated. War breaks out with Italian allies; massacre of Romans at Asculum.

90-88

The "Social War" against Rome's Italian allies, demanding greater citizenship rights. The rebellion is crushed by Sulla, Marius, and Pompey Strabo, but the allies eventually received enhanced rights. First campaign of young Pompey, Cicero.

88

Sulpicius Rufus tribune. Proposal to transfer the Mithridatic command from Sulla to Marius. Sulla marches on Rome with his army; caputres the city; repeals legislation and passes laws strengthening the Senate. Marius escapes. Social War draws to a close. Mithridates overruns Asia Minor, massacres many Romans and Italians; joined by Athens.

87

Cinna and Marius occupy Rome; massacre of Sulla's supporters. Sulla lands in Greece and besieges Athens. Carbo consul 87-84. The teenage Caesar is chosen for the lifetime dignity of flamen dialis (high priest of Jupiter).

86

Marius, elected Consul for the seventh time (with Cinna), dies. Sulla takes Athens, defeats Mithridates' armies. Immediately after election as Consul (for the seventh time), Marius dies. Cinna takes control of the Populares against Sulla's faction.

85

Sulla negotiates Treaty of Dardanus with Mithridates. Settlement of Asia. Caesar becomes officially a man by assuming the toga virilis. His father dies.

84

Cinna in power but is later murdered. Caesar weds Cinna's daughter. Carbo remains sole consul.

83

Lucius Cornelius Sulla, returning from the eastern Mithridatic War, victorious against the Marian party with the aid of Pompey and Crassus. Massive proscriptions follow. Sulla's legislation returns political power to the Senate; tribunician powers limited. Murena begins Second Mithridatic War.

82

Civil War in Italy; Sulla victorious at the battle of the Colline Gate. Massive proscriptions, deaths, property confiscations shake the power structure. Sertorious, last major Marian leader, leaves for Spain. Pompey defeats Sulla's opponents in Sicily; Sulla orders Murena to stop fighting against Mithridates.

82-81

Sulla becomes dictator; constitutional settlement, reform of criminal law. Pompey defeats the Marians in Africa; Sertorius driven from Spain.

81

Sulla hostile against Caesar; Caesar flees Rome. Sulla persuaded to pardon Caesar, who refuses to divorce Cinna's daughter, Cornelia. Sulla impounds Cornelia's dowry and strips Caesar of office of flamen dialis. Caesar's only child, daughter Julia, is born.

80

Sulla serves as Consul. Sertorius returns to Spain. Caesar leaves Rome for military service with the governor of Asia. At the capture of Mytilene, Caesar wins the corona civica (personal heroism). For the rest of his life he will be awarded public honors (such as being able to wear his laurel crown on all public occasions). He is also permitted to sit in the Senate without age restriction.

80?-79

Sulla resigns dictatorship. Sertorious defeats Metellus Pius in Spain.

78

Death of Sulla. Lepidus challenges Sulla's constitution. Caesar serves under P. Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. After Sulla's death, Caesar returns to Rome. He refuses to join Lepidus' insurrection.

77

Lepidus defeated by Catulus and Pompey, dies in Sardinia. Pompey appointed against Sertorius in Spain. In Rome, Caesar, as advocate, prosecutes the consular Cn. Cornelius Dolabella for extortion while serving as provincial governor.

76

Attempts to restore powers to tribunes. Sertorius successful against Pompey and Metellus.

75

Lex Aurelia allows tribunes to hold other offices later. Cicero serves as quaestor in Sicily. Leaving Rome to study rhetoric in Rhodes, Caesar is captured by pirates; his 50-talent ransom takes 40 days to raise while he is held captive. Caesar, released, returns and crucifies all the pirates. He then continues on to Rhodes to study under famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon.

74

Cyrene made a Roman province. Reinforcements sent to Pompey in Spain. Mithridates invades Bithynia; Lucullus sent against him. On the outbreak of the Mithridatic War, Caesar fights against a royal detachment in Asia province. Returns to Rome. Nicomedes dies, bequeaths Bythinia to Rome.

73

Tribune Licius Macer agitates for reform Laws deal with grain distribution. Rising of Spartacus at Capua. Lucullus defeats Mithridates on the Rhyndacus. Caesar joins the Pontifical College.

72

Spartacus continues successfully against Roman efforts to destroy revolt. In Spain, Sertorius assassinated; Pompey settles Spain. Lucullus campaigns against Mithridates in Pontus. M. Antonius unsuccessful against Cretan pirates. Caesar serves as military tribune.

71

Spartacus defeated by Crassus. Pompey returns from Spain. Lucullus defeats Mithridates who flees to Tigranes.

70

Pompey and Crassus elected as consuls; they continue dismantling provisions of Sullan laws.

69

Lucullus captures Armenian capital, Tigranocerta. Caesar serves as quaestor under governor of Further Spain. His aunt Julia (wife of Marius) dies; Caesar gives funeral oration, honors Marius and his own descent. Later, Caesar's wife dies.

68

Mithridates returns to Pontus.

67

Caesar marries Pompeia, granddaughter of Sulla. Votes for Lex Gabinia, to give Pompey total authority to fight piracy in the eastern Mediterranean.

67-66

Pompey destroys piracy in the Mediterranean; his reputation soars.

66

First Catilinarian 'conspiracy.' Cicero, Caesar speaks in favor of the Lex Manilia, giving Pompey unparalleled powers in command of Roman armies against Mithridates.

66-62

Pompey destroys Mithridates, king of Pontus, bringing new territories into the Empire. He completely reorganizes the eastern provinces; his reputation is at its height.

65

Crassus is censor; works for influence in Spain and Egypt. Pompey campaigns in the Caucasus. Caesar serves as Curule Aedile with Bibulus. He restores Marius' trophies, formerly removed by Sulla, and gains a reputation for lavish expenditure on games and crowd-pleasing entertainments.

64

Pompey victorious in Syria; end of Seleucid monarchy. In the elections, Cataline loses to Cicero for the consulship; some sources suggest Caesar supported Cataline.

63

Consulship of Cicero. Caesar triumphs at the polls to win the position of Pontifix Maximus. Birth of Octavian. On December 5, Caesar's significant speech in the Senate against condemning the Catilinarian conspirators to death without trial. Cato accuses Caesar of foreknowledge of the conspiracy but Cicero supports him. Pompey in Damascus, Jerusalem; end of Hasmonean power. Mithridates dies in the Crimea.

62

Defeat and death of Catiline at Pistoia. Caesar elected praetor. Clodius profanes the Bona Dea festival with resulting scandal. Caesar divorces Pompeia for not being "above suspicion." Pompey settles the East (including making Syria a province); returns to Italy and dismisses his army in December.

61

The Senate opposes Pompey's administrative acts in the East; Pompey holds his Triumph. Trial of Clodius. Caesar proconsul of the province of Further Spain; victorious campaign against the Lusitani which permits him to seek a Triumph in Rome. In Gaul, the Allobroges revolt; the Aedui appeal to Rome for help. Crassus negotiates, unsuccessfully, to reduce tax-farming commitments of the Equites in the east.

60

Caesar returns to Rome; Cato filibusters to prevent his standing for the consulship in absentia. Foregoing his Triumph, Caesar enters Rome, stands for office, and wins the Consulship with the support of Caesar and Crassus. The "First Triumvirate" formed.

59

Caesar's turbulent consulship. Land reforms forced through the Senate for Pompey's veterans; Crassus' tax-farming proposals passed. Bibulus retires to "watch the sky for omens." Caesar's daughter marries Pompey; Caesar marries Piso's daughter, Calpurnia. Caesar secures Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum (and, later, further Gaul) as his post-consular province for a 5-year term.

58

Tribunate of Publius Clodius. Cicero exiled; Cato sent to Cypress which is annexed. Caesar moves against the Helvetii and Ariovistus in the first battles of the Gallic Wars.

57

Rioting in Rome between Clodius and Milo. Cicero is recalled in September. Pompey concerned with food supply. Caesar campaigns against the Belgii; all northern Gaul apparently pacified.

56

The Triumvirate in disarray; Cicero attacks the land-reform law Caesar passed during his consulship. Caesar meets with Pompey and Crassus at Lucca in April to renew power-sharing. Caesar's term in Gaul to be extended. Pompey and Crassus will stand, again, for the Consulship. Caesar campaigns against rebellious tribes in Brittany and Normandy as well as the Aquitani. Cato returns from Cypress.

55

Second consulship of Pompey and Crassus; law passed prolonging Caesar's proconsulship for five years with new commands for both Consuls.Caesar campaigns against the Usipetes and Tencteri. First crossing of the Rhine into Germany; first, historic reconnaissance mission to Britain. Historic thanksgivings voted to Caesar by the Senate.

54

Pompey remains near Rome, governing Spain through subordinates. Rioting in Rome. Caesar returns to Britain, spending the winter in Gaul. Ambiorix destroys fifteen cohorts. Winter quarters of the legate Q.Cicero besieged; relieved by Caesar. Labienus campaigns against the Treveri. Death in childbirth of Caesar's daughter, Julia, wife of Pompey; Caesar's mother, Aurelia, also dies. Crassus, in Syria, prepares for Parthian campaign.

53

Continued rioting in Rome; no consuls can be elected until July. Caesar undertakes punitive expeditions against the rebellious tribes; second Rhine crossing. The Eburones are exterminated; Ambiorix escapes. On June 9, in Mesopotamia, Crassus loses the battle of Carrhae and his life.

52

In January, Publius Clodius murdered by Milo. Disorder in Rome; Pompey elected 'consul without a colleague' on February 25. Serves alone until order is restored in August. Caesar negotiates from Ravenna and, by the law, of the ten tribunes, is permitted to stand for the consulship in 49 in absentia. The Gallic confederacy formed under Vercingetorix; Gaul breaks into open rebellion. Caesar captures Avaricum, has to abandon the siege of Vergovia, is victorious in the neighborhood of Dijon, surrounds Vercingetorix in Alesia, repels the attempt of the combined Celtic levies to relieve him. Vercingetorix surrenders.

51

Optimates attacks on Caesar, who gains support of Curio. Parthia invades Syria; Cicero sent as governor to Cilicia. Death of Ptolemy Auletes; Ptolemy XIII marries Cleopatra; joint rulers in Egypt. Caesar completes pacification of Gaul; surrender of Uxellodunum with multilation of rebellious prisoners. Caesar begins political reorganization of the province from Nemotocenna (Arras). Probable publication of his Gallic commentaries. In Rome, Marcellus attempts to prematurely recall Caesar from his command.

50

In Rome the optimates continue their efforts to recall Caesar and bring him to trial. The tribune, C. Curio, prevents the passing of a decree against Caesar by imposition of the tribunician veto. Curio proposes that both Caesar and Pompey disarm; vetoed. Pompey asked by consul Marcellus to save the State (November). In December, Curio's term expires; Antony takes over as Caesar's leading tribune. Pompey refuses to compromise. Civil War looms. Caesar continues to negotiate to avoid losing his imperium while still running for the Consulship for 48 in absentia.

49

On January 7, the Senate decrees that Caesar must dismiss his army by an appointed day and, despite tribunician veto, grants Pompey and the other magistrates state authority. Caesar crosses Rubicon during the night of January 10 and, with one legion, begins moving towards Rome. On February 21, Corfinium surrenders with little resistance; on March 17, Pompey abandons Italy and crosses to the Balkan peninsula. On August 2, Pompey's Army in Nearer Spain surrenders to Caesar following battle of Ilerda; the southern Spanish province follows. Massilia surrenders to Caesar after a six-months' siege. Caesar is elected dictator and, during 11-day term, passes emergency legislation.

48

Caesar gives up the dictatorship, elected to second consulship with Publius Servilius Isauricus. Crossing the Adriatic, he surrounds Pompey at Dyrrhachium in April; Pompey breaks through the siege line in July. Caesar withdraws towards Thessaly. On August 9, Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus. Pompey flees to Egypt, Caesar in pursuit. On September 28, prior to Caesar's arrival, Pompey is murdered by ministers of the Pharoah in Egypt. Caesar arrives and occupies Alexandria, where his small force is besieged by Ptolemy's hostile forces. Meets and supports Cleopatra in her quest for rule of Egypt.

47

Caesar again appointed dictator, this time for one year in absentia. Antony, his Master of the Horse, maintains order in Italy. In March, Caesar's forces relieved by reinforcements from Asia Minor; on March 27, he is victorious in battle on the Nile. Death of Ptolemy. Caesar installs Cleopatra as Queen and cruises the Nile. Pharnaces of Bosporus defeats Roman army under Domitius Calvinus in Pontus. In early June, Caesar leaves Egypt, moves against the king of Pontus, Pharnaces II (Mithridates' son). On August 1, defeats Pharnaces at Zela ("I came, I saw, I conquered"). At the beginning of October, Caesar (dictator) arrives in Rome; further legislative reforms including reorganization of debt laws. On December 28, Caesar and his legions return to the coast of Africa to defeat the remaining Pompeian forces. Since 48, the optimates have been collecting armies in the African Province. Cleopatra bears Caesar a son, nicknamed Caesarion.

46

Caesar elected consul for the third time, serving with Lepidus. On April 6, Caesar victorious at Battle of Thapsus, defeating Scipio and Juba. Suicide of Cato. On July 25, Caesar returns to Rome where he is appointed to his third dictatorship, this time for a ten-year term. In Spain, the sons of Pompey renew the war. Caesar completes further legislation including reform of the calendar, adding additional days to this year to bring the solar calendar into alignment. Leaves Rome for Spain in the middle of November.

45

Caesar serves as his fourth consulship (without a colleague). On March 17, Caesar victorious at Munda; after administrative reforms, he returns to Rome in October. The Senate votes extravagant decrees in his honor, including dictatorship for life and divine worship. Caesar's images begin to appear on coinage. In the fall, Caesar makes preparations for a campaign in Parthia the next year and makes his will, appointing his great-nephew, Octavian, as his primary heir, allegedly adopting him as his son.

44

On February 15, Caesar appears at the Lupercalia as dictator perpetuus (for life), in the dress of the ancient kings of Rome; refuses the diadem of kingship offered by co-consul Mark Antony, along with the title of king. Announces he will leave Rome for Parthia on March 18. 60 Republicans, led by Brutus and Cassius, join in conspiracy to murder him. On the Ides of March (March 15), attending the Senate for the last time, Caesar is stabbed to death. His last words, to Brutus, in Greek, were "and you too, child?" Octavian returns from Greece. Antony receives command in Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul. Cicero's first Phillipic against Antony.

43

Antony's siege of Mutina raised; deaths of consuls Hirtius and Pansa. D. Brutus killed in Gaul. Octavian declared consul in August. Triumvirate of Octavian, Antony and Lepidus (November). Proscriptions; death of Cicero. Brutus in Macedonia and Cassius in Syria raising armies.

42

Julius Caesar deified. Sextus Pompeius controls Sicily. Brutus and Cassius are defeated at Philippi in October; both commit suicide.